نوع مقاله : علمی-پژوهشی
نویسندگان
1 استادیار، گروه زبان و ادبیات فارسی، دانشگاه شهید چمران اهواز، اهواز، ایران
2 کارشناس ارشد، گروه پژوهش هنر، دانشگاه شهید چمران اهواز، اهواز، ایران
چکیده
کلیدواژهها
موضوعات
عنوان مقاله [English]
نویسندگان [English]
The hero's journey to unknown lands (often the islands of India) and his encounters /conflicts with strange creatures is a theme in epic texts, which can also be faintly traced in later lyrical writings. This legendary, astonishing, and recurring theme has a long history, appearing in ancient scholarly texts and becoming part of popular culture over the centuries; thus, it is familiar and credible to the audience. The strange creatures are beings or half-human, half-animal entities that appear absurd or terrifying due to their abnormal size, shape, and form, yet they possess human-like qualities; examples include Horse-headed beings, Dog-headed men (Cynocephali), Nasnases (half-human men), Headless men (Blemmyes).
This research aims to describe the strange creatures in epic texts while examining ancient Greek, Arabic, and Persian sources on this topic to clarify the cultural origins of these beings and the nature of their presence in epic literature as well as how epic poets characterize them. The oldest historical descriptions of these creatures can be found in Greek/Roman texts cited by historians connected to Indian culture. The translation of Alexander's story and ancient Greek/Roman scientific texts into Eastern languages on one hand, and the geographical proximity of Iran and India along with mutual cultural influences on the other hand, can be considered as factors for this presence.
Keywords: Epic, Strange Creatures, Horse-headed men, Nasnas (Half-human men), Headless men (Blemmyes), Dog-headed men (Cynocephali)
Introduction
Among the many wonders of the ancient world, the Strange creatures and semi-human creatures, with their mythological antiquity, have always piqued the curiosity of the ancients, from the common folk to the learned, due to their rarity and often frightening features. This lack of understanding led to myth-making and storytelling about them.
In epics, heroes travel to distant and unknown lands, encountering these Strange creatures, allowing the storyteller to astonish the audience while demonstrating the hero's divine power in overcoming foreigners. Greek historians like Ctesias and Megasthenes wrote books about India and its culture, mentioning these Strange creatures; references that were sometimes influenced by the speech of Indian Brahmins and natives (Wittkower, 1942: p. 164). These later references were cited by other Greek and Roman writers, forming the basis of Western perceptions of these beings. Examining the antiquity of Strange creatures in Iranian culture leads us to texts from Zoroastrian cosmology: in the Asurig Tree poem, which dates back to the Parthian era, in the Bundahish(n), a Middle Persian text from the late Sasanian period (finalized in the third century AH), and in Jamaspi (The book of Jamasp), a Zoroastrian text on ontology from the early Islamic period, these creatures are mentioned. In Persian literature, we also find traces of these beings in some epic texts.
Methodology
This study was conducted using a descriptive and analytical approach with library-based resources. To understand the portrayal of these Strange creatures in epic texts, ancient Persian and Arabic sources, including wonder books, geographical and literary texts, as well as ancient Greek and Roman sources, were examined as the oldest sources. The effort was made to trace the transition of these beings from reality to legend.
Discussion and Analysis
1.Horse-headed men (in Persian: Asbsar): In some ancient Asian rituals, the horse was considered a totem. In epic texts, horse-headed beings are not depicted as demonic creatures but as harmless Strange creatures. In the "Kush nama," Alexander encounters horse-headed beings and converses with them (IranShah bin Abi al-Khayr, 1998: pp.181-182), and in the "Faramarz nama-ye Bozorg," the hero Faramarz encounters them but cannot understand their language (Faramarz nama-ye Bozorg, 2015: pp. 254-259). Referring to the ancient Syriac translation of the Alexander story, we find that Alexander meets horse-headed beings in a coastal city called Prasiak in India, but like Faramarz, he also fails to comprehend their language (Callisthenes, 1889: p. 94).
Nasnas (half-human men): The Nasnases are another type of Strange creatures with whom heroes engage, fight, or gaze upon in awe. They are agile and half-bodied. In the "Faramarz nama," despite Faramarz's soldiers attempting to capture some of them, they fail, and Faramarz passes by the Nasnas without conflict (Faramarz nama-ye Bozorg, 2015: p. 276). In the "Garshasp nama," the hero once fights the Nasnas and another time flees from them without conflict (Asadi Tusi, 1975: pp. 120 & 173). In the later epic "Sam nama," the Nasnas, referred to as "half-bodied," are demonic; Sam battles them with the help of a fairy army and kills their king (Sam nama, 2013: pp. 321-322). These Nasnases, who are half-bodied, might resemble or be identical to creatures known as "monopods" in older sources, suggesting their origin could be traced back to India, as Biruni mentions monopods in the northeast and east of the world according to the Sanskrit text Sankheta (Biruni, 1998: pp. 258 & 254).
3. Headless men (Blemmye) (in Persian: Varcheshm): The presence of the Headless men in Islamic literature and culture can be found in Arabic translations and adaptations of the Alexander story. In "Tajarib al-Umam," we read that Alexander encountered a tribe that had been transformed; they had no heads, with eyes and mouths on their chests (Tajarib al-Umam, 1994: p. 162). The Headless men are also present in the ancient Syriac translation of the Alexander story (Callisthenes, 1889: p. 101). The earliest historical references to the Headless men can be found in Greek texts: Herodotus (c. 484 – c. 425 BCE) writes about them inhabiting the western regions of Libya in North Africa (Herodotus, 2010: Vol. 1, p. 531).
Dog-headed men (Cynocephali) (in Persian: Sagsar): The Dog-headed men, as demonic Strange creatures, appear in Persian epic poems and Alexander stories. In the "Garshasp nama," Garshasp battles the Dog-headed men on the island of Qalun, one of the islands of India (Asadi Tusi, 1975: pp. 174-175). In the "Bahman nama," gifts are exchanged between Bahman and the Dog-headed men, and Bahman passes by them safely (Iran Shah bin Abi al-Khayr, 1991: p. 419). In later epics like the "Shahriar nama" and "Sam nama," the Dog-headed men is depicted as a madman but with a different appearance: sometimes as a Dog-headed being and sometimes with two faces, one human and one canine. The oldest historical information about the Dog-headed men is found in Greek sources, where Herodotus mentions them alongside the Headless men in the western regions of Libya (Herodotus, 2010: Vol. 1, p. 531).
Conclusion
Based on ancient Greek and Roman sources, and later Islamic texts, the origins of the Strange creatures and semi-humans discussed in this study often trace back to India and its islands. Greek and Roman writers conveyed these beliefs by attributing them to that region within historical, geographical, or narrative texts (such as the story of Alexander). The cultural exchanges between the neighboring lands of Iran and India throughout history, and the translation and adaptation of Greek texts into ancient Iranian and later Islamic cultures, allowed these beliefs to enter Iranian culture over the centuries. They became embedded in popular culture and collective imagination, particularly in epics, many of which were based on oral traditions. The hero of the story, representing goodness and virtue, travels to unknown lands (often India) and encounters these Strange creatures; however, they are not always depicted as evil or demonic in all epics. For instance, Faramarz passes by the Horse-headed beings and half-bodied creatures without conflict; the Horse-headed beings and Headless men in Alexander's story are not demonic either; Garshasp has two encounters with the half-bodied Nasnases, but only kills a few in one of them. Even the Dog-headed men, who are aggressive in the Shah nama, Shahriar nama, and Sam nama, are peaceful in the Bahman nama. It appears that in later epics like the Sam nama and Shahriar nama, there is a greater emphasis on the demonic nature of these Strange creatures and the hero's battles with them.
کلیدواژهها [English]
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